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2013-12-03

'Designer sperm' inserts custom genes into offspring

"Transgenic technology is a most important tool for researching all kinds of disease in humans and animals, and for understanding crucial problems in biology," said Anil Chandrashekran, Ph.D., study author from the Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences at The Royal Veterinary College in North Mimms, United Kingdom.

To achieve these results, Chandrashekran and colleagues used lentiviruses to generate transgenic animals via the male germ line. When pseudotyped lentiviral vectors encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) were incubated with mouse spermatozoa, these sperm were highly successful in producing transgenics. Lentivirally-transduced mouse spermatozoa were used in in vitro fertilization studies and when followed by embryo transfer, at least 42 percent of founders were transgenic for GFP. GFP expression was detected in a wide range of murine tissues, including testis and the transgene was stably transmitted to a third generation of transgenic animals.

"Using modified sperm to insert genetic material has the potential to be a major breakthrough not only in future research, but also in human medicine," said Gerald Weissmann, M.D., Editor-in-Chief of The FASEB Journal. "It facilitates the development of transgenic animal models, and may lead to therapeutic benefits for people as well. For years we have chased effective gene therapies and have hit numerous speed bumps and dead ends. If we are able to able to alter sperm to improve the health of future generations, it would completely change our notions of 'preventative medicine.'"

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Business Toshiba to acquire SSD assets of OCZ.

2013/12/03

Toshiba has agreed to buy the assets of bankrupt SSD specialist OCZ Technology.

The agreement is subject to the approval of the bankruptcy court.

“If our bid is successful, the combination of our NAND technology with OCZ’s SSD expertise will allow us to further strengthen Toshiba’s SSD business,” says Toshiba vp Seiichi Mori, “we value OCZ’s SSD business and technology in both the consumer and enterprise markets, and we are confident that it will reinforce our capabilities and help us to secure leadership in the SSD market.”

“Toshiba brings the necessary capital and NAND flash supply and expertise, which together with our solid state drive technology will enable us to provide client and enterprise customers with a very compelling total storage solution,” solutions,” says Ralph Schmitt CEO of OCZ, “this combination will make for an unstoppable force in the highly competitive SSD market.”

If all goes well in the bankruptcy court, the deal should be completed in January.

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Division of labor in the test tube

Dec. 2, 2013 — The division of labor is more efficient than a struggle through life without help from others -- this is also true for microorganisms. Researchers from Research Group Experimental Ecology and Evolution at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology and their colleagues at the Friedrich Schiller University in Jena, Germany came to this conclusion when they performed experiments with microbes. The scientists worked with bacteria that were deficient in the production of a certain amino acid and therefore depended on a partner to provide the missing nutrient. Bacterial strains that complemented each other's need by providing the required amino acid showed a fitness increase of about 20% relative to a non-deficient strain without partner. This result helps to explain why cooperation is such a widespread model of success in nature.

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Ecology and evolution: close relatives

Each life form on our planet has to adapt to its environment as good as it can. Apart from getting used to climate conditions and food supply, each species must get along with other organisms in the habitat. In the course of evolution species adapt continuously to each other and to the environment by changing their genetic features. This is why cold resistant species live at the poles and heat resistant species in the deserts. Also nutritional needs and metabolic regulation underlie the principle of evolution. So let's take a look at the world of microbes in this context!

Microbial communities

"No matter where you look: Microbial communities can be found in almost every habitat you can think of," says Christian Kost, leader of the research group Experimental Ecology and Evolution at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology in Jena, Germany. Microbes often live in symbiosis with higher organisms, but they also cooperate with each other in order to optimally utilize the resources that are available to them. Interestingly, a look at the genome of cooperating bacterial strains shows that some of them are unable to perform all vital metabolic functions on their own. Instead, they rely on their cooperative partner. Their environment, that is to say other organisms, provides the nutrients they cannot produce themselves anymore. However, the result of the cooperation is a risky dependency: If one partner is lost, the other dies as well. Can such a dependency in fact be a trait that is selected for and which is maintained for a longer period in a bacterial population? Is this assumption compatible with Darwin's theory of the "survival of the fittest"? If so, cooperating partners should perform as good or even better than microbes without partner in terms of fitness.

Synthetic Ecology: simulating ecological parameters in a test tube

To bring a naturally evolved symbiotic community from the real world into the lab to study such cooperation, is often very difficult. Therefore, scientists used a synthetic model: Escherichia coli bacteria were genetically modified in such a way that one bacterial strain was unable to produce a certain amino acid anymore, such as tryptophan, but produced all other amino acids in high concentrations. If this strain grows in a culture with another strain unable to produce arginine, another amino acid, both strains are able to feed each other. Amazingly, such co-culture experiments showed that the growth of these bacterial cells was increased by 20% in comparison to the unmodified wild-type strain that was able to produce all essential amino acid by itself. The inability of the deficient strain to produce an essential amino acid had a positive effect on its growth when a partner was present that compensated this loss. This can be explained by the considerably reduced energy costs both strains had to invest for producing the exchanged amino acids. Specializing on the production of certain, but not all necessary amino acids made the bacterial cells more efficient and thus resulted in faster growth. Interestingly, the two cooperating, amino acid exchanging strains even outcompeted a self-sustaining wild-type strain.

The research results from Christian Kost's lab illustrate why symbiotic relationships with bacteria are so prevalent. In the course of evolution, an association may get so close that the mutualistic partners merge into a new, multicellular organism.

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Process holds promise for production of synthetic gasoline from carbon dioxide

A novel "co-catalyst" system using inexpensive, easy to fabricate carbon-based nanofiber materials efficiently converts carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide, a useful starting-material for synthesizing fuels. The findings have been published online in advance of print in the journal Nature Communications.

"I believe this can open a new field for the design of inexpensive and efficient catalytic systems for the many researchers already working with these easily manipulated advanced carbon materials," says Amin Salehi-Khojin, UIC professor of mechanical and industrial engineering and principal investigator on the study.

Researchers have spent decades trying to find an efficient, commercially viable way to chemically "reduce," or lower the oxidation state, of carbon dioxide. The UIC researchers approached the problem in a new way.

Although reducing carbon dioxide is a two-step process, chemists had commonly used a single catalyst, Salehi-Khojin said. He and his colleagues experimented with using different catalysts for each step.

In previous work, Salehi-Khojin used an ionic liquid to catalyze the first step of the reaction, and silver for the final reduction to carbon monoxide. The co-catalyst system was more efficient than single-catalyst carbon dioxide reduction systems, he said.

But silver is expensive. So he and his coworkers set out to see if a relatively new class of metal-free catalysts -- graphitic carbon structures doped with other reactive atoms -- might work in place of the silver.

They tried a common structural material, carbon nanofibers, which was doped with nitrogen, as a substitute for silver to catalyze the second step.

When these carbon materials are used as catalysts, the doping atoms, most often nitrogen, drive the reduction reaction. But, through careful study of this particular reaction, the researchers found that it was not the nitrogen that was the catalyst.

"It was the carbon atom sitting next to the dopant that was responsible," said Mohammad Asadi, a UIC graduate student who is one of two first-authors of the study.

"We were very surprised at first," Asadi said.

But as they continued to characterize the reaction it became clear not only that carbon was catalyzing the reaction, but that the co-catalyst system was more efficient than silver, "showing substantial synergistic effects," Asadi said.

Bijandra Kumar, UIC research scholar and the other first-author of the paper, said the team "uncovered the hidden mechanism" of the co-catalyzed reaction, which has "opened up a lot of options for designing inexpensive and efficient catalyst system for carbon dioxide conversion."

"Further, one can imagine that using atomically-thin, two-dimensional graphene nano-sheets, which have extremely high surface area and can easily be designed with dopant atoms like nitrogen, we can develop even far more efficient catalyst systems," Kumar said.

"If the reaction happened on the dopant, we would not have much freedom in terms of structure," said Salehi-Khojin. In that case, little could be done to increase the efficiency or stability of the reaction.

But with the reaction happening on the carbon, "we have enormous freedom" to use these very advanced carbon materials to optimize the reaction, he said.

The researchers hope that their research leads to commercially viable processes for the production of syngas and even gasoline from carbon dioxide.

Co-authors are Davide Pisasale, Suman Sinha-Ray, Jeremiah Abiade and Alexander Yarin from UIC and Brian Rosen and Richard Haasch from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

The study was supported in part by UIC. The work was carried out in part at the Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory at the Urbana-Champaign campus.

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Air pollution, genetics combine to increase risk for autism

Dec. 2, 2013 — Exposure to air pollution appears to increase the risk for autism among people who carry a genetic disposition for the neurodevelopmental disorder, according to newly published research led by scientists at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California (USC).

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"Our research shows that children with both the risk genotype and exposure to high air pollutant levels were at increased risk of autism spectrum disorder compared to those without the risk genotype and lower air pollution exposure," said the study's first author, Heather E. Volk, Ph.D., M.P.H., assistant professor of research in preventive medicine and pediatrics at the Keck School of Medicine of USC and principal investigator at The Saban Research Institute of Children's Hospital Los Angeles.

The study, "Autism spectrum disorder: Interaction of air pollution with the MET receptor tyrosine kinase gene," is scheduled to appear in the January 2014 edition of Epidemiology.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental disability characterized by problems with social interaction, communication and repetitive behaviors. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that one in 88 children in the United States has an ASD.

ASD is highly heritable, suggesting that genetics are an important contributing factor, but many questions about its causes remain. There currently is no cure for the disorder.

"Although gene-environment interactions are widely believed to contribute to autism risk, this is the first demonstration of a specific interaction between a well-established genetic risk factor and an environmental factor that independently contribute to autism risk," said Daniel B. Campbell, Ph.D., assistant professor of psychiatry and the behavioral sciences at the Keck School of Medicine of USC and the study's senior author. "The MET gene variant has been associated with autism in multiple studies, controls expression of MET protein in both the brain and the immune system, and predicts altered brain structure and function. It will be important to replicate this finding and to determine the mechanisms by which these genetic and environmental factors interact to increase the risk for autism."

Independent studies by Volk and Campbell have previously reported associations between autism and air pollution exposure and between autism and a variant in the MET gene. The current study suggests that air pollution exposure and the genetic variant interact to augment the risk of ASD.

Campbell and Volk's team studied 408 children between 2 and 5 years of age from the Childhood Autism Risks From Genetics and the Environment Study, a population-based, case-control study of preschool children from California. Of those, 252 met the criteria for autism or autism spectrum disorder. Air pollution exposure was determined based on the past residences of the children and their mothers, local traffic-related sources, and regional air quality measures. MET genotype was determined through blood sampling.

Campbell and Volk continue to study the interaction of air pollution exposure and the MET genotype in mothers during pregnancy.

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Brain connectivity study reveals striking differences between men and women

In one of the largest studies looking at the "connectomes" of the sexes, Ragini Verma, PhD, an associate professor in the department of Radiology at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, and colleagues found greater neural connectivity from front to back and within one hemisphere in males, suggesting their brains are structured to facilitate connectivity between perception and coordinated action. In contrast, in females, the wiring goes between the left and right hemispheres, suggesting that they facilitate communication between the analytical and intuition.

"These maps show us a stark difference--and complementarity--in the architecture of the human brain that helps provide a potential neural basis as to why men excel at certain tasks, and women at others," said Verma.

For instance, on average, men are more likely better at learning and performing a single task at hand, like cycling or navigating directions, whereas women have superior memory and social cognition skills, making them more equipped for multitasking and creating solutions that work for a group. They have a mentalistic approach, so to speak.

Past studies have shown sex differences in the brain, but the neural wiring connecting regions across the whole brain that have been tied to such cognitive skills has never been fully shown in a large population.

In the study, Verma and colleagues, including co-authors Ruben C. Gur, PhD, a professor of psychology in the department of Psychiatry, and Raquel E. Gur, MD, PhD, professor of Psychiatry, Neurology and Radiology, investigated the gender-specific differences in brain connectivity during the course of development in 949 individuals (521 females and 428 males) aged 8 to 22 years using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). DTI is water-based imaging technique that can trace and highlight the fiber pathways connecting the different regions of the brain, laying the foundation for a structural connectome or network of the whole brain.

This sample of youths was studied as part of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, a National Institute of Mental Health-funded collaboration between the University of Pennsylvania Brain Behavior Laboratory and the Center for Applied Genomics at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.

The brain is a roadmap of neural pathways linking many networks that help us process information and react accordingly, with behavior controlled by several of these sub-networks working in conjunction.

In the study, the researchers found that females displayed greater connectivity in the supratentorial region, which contains the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, between the left and right hemispheres. Males, on the other hand, displayed greater connectivity within each hemisphere.

By contrast, the opposite prevailed in the cerebellum, the part of the brain that plays a major role in motor control, where males displayed greater inter-hemispheric connectivity and females displayed greater intra-hemispheric connectivity.

These connections likely give men an efficient system for coordinated action, where the cerebellum and cortex participate in bridging between perceptual experiences in the back of the brain, and action, in the front of the brain, according to the authors. The female connections likely facilitate integration of the analytic and sequential processing modes of the left hemisphere with the spatial, intuitive information processing modes of the right side.

The authors observed only a few gender differences in the connectivity in children younger than 13 years, but the differences were more pronounced in adolescents aged 14 to 17 years and young adults older than 17.

The findings were also consistent with a Penn behavior study, of which this imaging study was a subset of, that demonstrated pronounced sexual differences. Females outperformed males on attention, word and face memory, and social cognition tests. Males performed better on spatial processing and sensorimotor speed. Those differences were most pronounced in the 12 to 14 age range.

"It's quite striking how complementary the brains of women and men really are," said Dr. Ruben Gur. "Detailed connectome maps of the brain will not only help us better understand the differences between how men and women think, but it will also give us more insight into the roots of neurological disorders, which are often sex related."

Next steps are to quantify how an individual's neural connections are different from the population; identify which neural connections are gender specific and common in both; and to see if findings from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies fall in line with the connectome data.

Co-authors of the study include Madhura Ingalhalikar, Alex Smith, Drew Parker, Theodore D. Satterthwaite, Mark A. Elliott, Kosha Ruparel, and Hakon Hakonarson of the Section of Biomedical Image Analysis and the Center for Biomedical Image Computing and Analytics.

This study was funded by in part by the National Institutes of Mental Health: MH089983, MH089924, MH079938, and MH092862.

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Business Altera launches 20nm tools

2013/12/02

Altera arria Altera has come up with development tools for 20nm IC design, based on TSMC’s 20 nm process technology. The annual software subscription is $2,995 for a node-locked PC license.

The Quartus II software Arria 10 edition is for designing 20nm FPGAs and SoCs that, says Altera ‘simultaneously deliver a 15% performance gain over current high-end FPGAs and up to 40% lower power than previous midrange devices’.

“For the past six months early access customers have successfully used Quartus II software to design Arria 10 FPGAs and SoCs, and today we are pleased to make this software support available to all users who want the quickest path to 20nm devices,” said Altera’s Premal Buch.

“Quartus II software uses leading-edge algorithms that take advantage of modern multi-core computing technologies. Architecting our software this way enables us to extend Quartus II software support to Altera’s next-generation product families and continue to deliver the industry’s fastest compile times,” added Buch.

Quartus II users can design, simulate and compile Arria 10 FPGAs and SoCs using the software. The software release includes advanced timing models and final pin outs to enable board layout.

The Quartus II software Arria 10 edition supports multiple FPGA and SoC devices, including the largest density midrange Arria 10 device, featuring up to 1.15 million logic elements (LEs).

Arria 10 FPGAs and SoCs offer 2X greater system integration than competitive midrange devices, including up to 1.15 million logic elements (LEs), variable-precision digital signal processing (DSP) blocks with more than 3300 18×19 multipliers and integrated hard IP and the option of an integrated processor system that features a 1.5GHz dual-core ARMCortex-A9 processor.

Arria 10 FPGAs and SoCs also provide 4X greater bandwidth compared to the current generation, including 28Gbit/s transceivers, and 3X higher system performance, including support for PCIeGen3 x8, 2666Mbit/s DDR4 and up to 15Gbit/s Hybrid Memory Cube.

Arria 10 FPGAs and SoCs devices will be supported by Altera’s Enprion optimized power solutions that deliver a combination of high efficiency, small footprint, and low noise performance in an integrated product.

Applications for Arria 10 FPGAs and SoCs are, says Altera, mobile backhaul by integrating the control plane processor, network processor, switches, and IO expansion into a single FPGA; broadcast and studio equipment via integrated video and image processing including 4K, 3D, and codecs; andcloud computing storage systems.

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New algorithm finds you, even in untagged photos

Developed by Parham Aarabi, a professor in The Edward S. Rogers Sr. Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, and his former Master's student Ron Appel, the search tool uses tag locations to quantify relationships between individuals, even those not tagged in any given photo.

Imagine you and your mother are pictured together, building a sandcastle at the beach. You're both tagged in the photo quite close together. In the next photo, you and your father are eating watermelon. You're both tagged. Because of your close 'tagging' relationship with both your mother in the first picture and your father in the second, the algorithm can determine that a relationship exists between those two and quantify how strong it may be.

In a third photo, you fly a kite with both parents, but only your mother is tagged. Given the strength of your 'tagging' relationship with your parents, when you search for photos of your father the algorithm can return the untagged photo because of the very high likelihood he's pictured.

"Two things are happening: we understand relationships, and we can search images better," says Professor Aarabi.

The nimble algorithm, called relational social image search, achieves high reliability without using computationally intensive object- or facial-recognition software. "If you want to search a trillion photos, normally that takes at least a trillion operations. It's based on the number of photos you have," says Aarabi. "Facebook has almost half a trillion photos, but a billion users -- it's almost a 500 order of magnitude difference. Our algorithm is simply based on the number of tags, not on the number of photos, which makes it more efficient to search than standard approaches."

Work on this project began in 2005 in Professor Aarabi's Mobile Applications Lab, Canada's first lab space for mobile application development.

Currently the algorithm's interface is primarily for research, but Aarabi aims to see it incorporated on the back-end of large image databases or social networks. "I envision the interface would be exactly like you use Facebook search -- for users, nothing would change. They would just get better results," says Aarabi.

While testing the algorithm, Aarabi and Appel discovered an unforeseen application: a new way to generate maps. They tagged a few photographs of buildings around the University of Toronto and ran them through the system with a bunch of untagged campus photos. "The result we got was of almost a pseudo-map of the campus from all these photos we had taken, which was very interesting," says Aarabi.

This work received support from the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. It will be presented at the IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia Dec. 10, 2013.

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Koalas' low-pitched voice explained by unique organ

Dec. 2, 2013 — The pitch of male koalas' mating calls is about 20 times lower than it should be, given the Australian marsupial's relatively small size. Now, researchers reporting in the Cell Press journal Current Biology on December 2 have discovered their secret: koalas have a specialized sound-producing organ that has never before been seen in any other land-dwelling mammal. The key feature of this newly described organ is its location outside the voice box, what scientists call the larynx.

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"We have discovered that koalas possess an extra pair of vocal folds that are located outside the larynx, where the oral and nasal cavities connect," says Benjamin Charlton of the University of Sussex. "We also demonstrated that koalas use these additional vocal folds to produce their extremely low-pitched mating calls."

The koala's bellow calls are produced as a continuous series of sounds on inhalation and exhalation, similar to a donkey's braying, Charlton explains. On inhalation, koala bellows sound a bit like snoring. As the animals exhale, the sound is more reminiscent of belching. And, as Charlton says, "they are actually quite loud."

They are also incredibly low-pitched, more typical of an animal the size of an elephant. Size is related to pitch in that the dimensions of the laryngeal vocal folds normally constrain the lowest frequency that an animal can generate. As a result, smaller species will typically give calls with higher frequencies than larger ones.

Koalas have bypassed that constraint by putting those vocal folds in a new location. Charlton describes the folds as two long, fleshy lips in the soft palette, just above the larynx at the junction between the oral and nasal cavities. They may not look all that different from the laryngeal vocal folds of other mammals, but their location is highly unusual.

"To our knowledge, the only other example of a specialized sound-producing organ in mammals that is independent of the larynx are the phonic lips that toothed whales use to generate echolocation clicks," Charlton says.

The combination of morphological, video, and acoustic data in the new study represents the first evidence in a terrestrial mammal of an organ other than the larynx that is dedicated to sound production. Charlton says that he and his colleagues will now look more closely at other mammals to find out whether this vocal adaptation is truly unique to koalas.

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'Nanosponge vaccine' fights MRSA toxins

The nanosponges at the foundation of the experimental "toxoid vaccine" platform are bio-compatible particles made of a polymer core wrapped in a red-blood-cell membrane. Each nanosponge's red-blood-cell membrane seizes and detains the Staphylococcus aureus (staph) toxin alpha-haemolysin without compromising the toxin's structural integrity through heating or chemical processing. These toxin-studded nanosponges served as vaccines capable of triggering neutralizing antibodies and fighting off otherwise lethal doses of the toxin in mice.

Toxoid vaccines protect against a toxin or set of toxins, rather than the organism that produces the toxin(s). As the problem of antibiotic resistance worsens, toxoid vaccines offer a promising approach to fight infections without reliance on antibiotics.

"With our toxoid vaccine, we don't have to worry about antibiotic resistance. We directly target the alpha-haemolysin toxin," said Liangfang Zhang, a nanoengineering professor at UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering and the senior author on the paper. Targeting the alpha-haemolysin toxin directly has another perk. "These toxins create a toxic environment that serves as a defense mechanism which makes it harder for the immune system to fight Staph bacteria," explained Zhang.

Beyond MRSA and other staph infections, the nanosponge vaccine approach could be used to create vaccines that protect against a wide range of toxins, including those produced by E. coli and H. pylori.

This work from Zhang's Nanomaterials and Nanomedicine Laboratory at the UC San Diego included nanoengineering post-doctoral researcher Che-Ming "Jack" Hu, nanoengineering graduate student Ronnie Fang, and bioengineering graduate student Brian Luk.

The researchers found that their nanosponge vaccine was safe and more effective than toxoid vaccines made from heat-treated staph toxin. After one injection, just 10 percent of staph-infected mice treated with the heated version survived, compared to 50 percent for those who received the nanosponge vaccine. With two more booster shots, survival rates with the nanosponge vaccine were up to 100 percent, compared to 90 percent with the heat-treated toxin.

"The nanosponge vaccine was also able to completely prevent the toxin's damages in the skin, where MRSA infections frequently take place," said Zhang, who is also affiliated with the Moores Cancer Center at UC San Diego.

Fighting Pore-Forming Toxins

This work is a twist on a project the UC San Diego nanoengineers presented earlier this year: a nanosponge that can sop up a variety of pore-forming toxins -- from bacterial proteins to snake venom -- in the body.

Pore-forming toxins work by punching holes in a cell's membrane and letting the cell essentially leak to death. But when toxins attack the red blood cell membrane draped over the nanoparticle, "nothing will happen. It just locks the toxin there," Zhang explained.

The nanoengineers wondered what would happen if they loaded one of their nanosponges with staph toxin in this way, and presented the whole package to an essential part of the immune system called dendritic cells. Could the loaded particles trigger an immune response and work as a toxoid vaccine?

Staph toxin is so powerful that it kills immune cells in its unaltered form. Most vaccine candidates, therefore, use a heat or chemically processed version of the toxin that unravels some of its proteins and makes it a little weaker. But this process also makes the immune response to the toxin a little weaker.

"The more you heat it, the safer the toxin is, but the more you heat it, the more you damage the structure of the protein," Zhang explained. "And this structure is what the immune cell recognizes, and builds its antibodies against."

The nanosponge toxoid vaccine gets around this problem by detaining -- but not changing -- the staph toxin. Like a dangerous but handcuffed prisoner, the staph toxin can be led to the dendritic cells of the immune system without causing any harm.

Before this, "there was no way you could deliver a native toxin to the immune cells without damaging the cells," Zhang said. "But this technology allows us to do this."

Each vaccine particle is approximately 85 nanometers in diameter; for comparison, about 1000 of them would fit across the width of a single human hair. They are cleared from the body after injection in about two weeks, the researchers found.

Staphylococcus aureus

Staph bacteria are one of the most common causes of skin infections, and can cause blood poisoning and surgical infections as well as pneumonia. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 80,000 Americans suffer from invasive MRSA infections each year, and over 11,000 of those individuals die. At the moment, there are no vaccines approved to protect humans against the toxins associated with staph infections, including those caused by MRSA strains.

The idea for a staph vaccine came about when the researchers considered the success of their nanosponge. If the particle was so good at collecting toxins, they wondered, what were the potential uses of a particle full of toxin? "To be honest, we never thought about the vaccine use from the beginning," Zhang noted. "But when we do research, we always want to look at a problem in reverse."

In a way, the toxoid vaccine hearkens back to their first use for the particles, as a cancer drug delivery device, Zhang noted.

The particles "work so beautifully," Zhang said, that it might be possible to detain several toxins at once on them, creating "one vaccine against many types of pore-forming toxins," from staph to snake venom.

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